In Mexico, more than 40 percent of the population is under the official poverty line. At the same time, Mexico is characterized by a society in which the socioeconomic origin condition is highly related to life achievement, especially on the extremes of the socioeconomic distribution (Vélez-Grajales et al, 2014). On this matter, empirical evidence shows that once the population is divided by quintiles, 48 out of 100 that were born in the lowest quintile stay there for the rest of their lives. Above the rest of them, i.e. those who are able to move to another quintile, 22 reach the second quintile. In summary, previous result leaves in poverty 70 percent of those with origin in the first quintile. It has to be noted that only 4 out of 100 that were born in the lowest quintile will move up to the top quintile.

On the other hand, above those that were born in the top quintile, 52 out of each 100 stay there for the rest of their lives. Moreover, above those that experience downward mobility, 28 out of each 100 move to the fourth quintile, i.e., 80 out of each 100 that were born in the top quintile will stay at least in the fourth quintile. Finally, it has to be noted that only 2 out of 100 that were born in the top quintile will move down to the lowest quintile. This means social mobility is very low.

This project is part of the first phase of the Research Facility on Inequalities, coordinated by AFD and funded by the European Commission's Directorate-General for International Partnerships over the 2017-2020 period. The first phase of the Facility has led to the conduct of 22 research projects and the publication of around 100 research papers and policy briefs.

How are economic inequality and social mobility related? Is it possible that the highest levels of socioeconomic persistence (lower social mobility) in terms of origin determined, in part, both perception and tolerance against economic inequality? The Mexican case, which is one where socioeconomic regional disparities are significant, represents a good option to analyze if such relationship holds. Moreover, there is still a gap in the literature for explaining the mechanisms behind the observed negative relationship.

Additionally, an important and relevant unanswered question for the Mexican case is the perception of Mexicans about inequality and social mobility levels. What if Mexicans think that the country is one of equal opportunities and results for all? Policy implications should be different among different perception scenarios. In any case, it is necessary to get information in order to understand the mechanisms at household and local level that explain the potential distance between perception and reality.

First, using a multivariate analysis method, relative intergenerational mobility can be estimated for each macro-region of the country. Several inequality measures will be estimated, but for several points in time. The researchers have chosen to do so because it is possible that not current but origin economic inequality is the relevant one for intergenerational social mobility. Once the relationship is estimated, a discussion on the mechanisms behind it should be developed. The empirical analysis will be mainly based on the “Encuesta ESRU de Movilidad Social en México 2017”.

Additionally, work with groups in 4 different cities with different levels of socioeconomic performance will be held. The researchers expect to do fieldwork in at least two different spots within each city: one for a group of medium-high socioeconomic level and one of medium-low socioeconomic level. The interview will include a measure for both inequality and social mobility. In such a way, the researchers will be able to understand in a better way the relationship between perceptions and objective measures on the variables of research interest.

See this project's 2 minutes pitch from Alice Krozer, researcher at Colegio de México:

You may find the research papers and the policy briefs linked to this project here :

Research papers:

- Social mobility in Mexico. What can we learn from its regional variation?

- Perceptions of inequality and social mobility in Mexico

Policy briefs:

- Wide regional differences in social mobility across Mexico

- Inaccurate public perceptions of inequality and social mobility in Mexico

Find the presentation of the research paper "Perceptions of inequality and social mobility in Mexico" by Aurora Ramirez Alvarez (Colegio de Mexico) during the first webinar of the Research Facility on Inequalities: 

Contact:

• Anda David, Research Officer, AFD. 

Contacto: 



Anda David, coordinadora de investigación, AFD.

In Argentina, the participation to the platform economy is a recent but rapidly expanding phenomenon. The severe recent economic crisis and its reinforcement with the Covid-19 crisis have been destabilizing to standard work relations, in an environment where informality is widespread and where gender inequalities are experienced across occupations. The high rate of internet connectivity (with coverage among the highest in Latin America) as well as the hardship of the economic conditions experienced in the labour market provide a particularly favorable environment for the expansion of the platform modality.

The research partnership between AFD and the Economics Department at the Instituto de Ciencias of the Universidad Nacional de General Sarmiento (UNGS) seeks to create some primary qualitative and quantitative data on platforms in Buenos Aires Metropolitan Area.

It explores app-based platforms for the personal service sector, such as the ones for domestic work, office repair services, food delivery and ride-hailing services. The project develops articles inspecting various aspects of the platform economy, characterizing the workers that engage in it, their labour conditions, as well as their perceptions about this type of insertion. It enquires about the levels of flexibility and/or control posed by platforms on the work process, inspecting the relationship with existing labour regulations and its implications for workers’ labour conditions. Moreover, the research identifies the opportunities/obstacles for entry and permanence in the analyzed occupations and the way in which gender restrictions operate.

The project is based on a mixed methods’ approach, developing its primary qualitative and quantitative data.

In the first phase of the project, a series of in-depth interviews and focus groups is conducted with workers of each occupational group in order to delve deeper into the different dimensions of platform work. 

In the second phase of the project, building on the information from the qualitative data collection, an ad-hoc quantitative survey is designed to collect data about workers on the platform to strengthen knowledge on their experience. The survey is based on a non-probabilistic sample with gender quotas per platform, seeking to ensure comparability among occupations and demographic groups. Moreover, thanks to a collaboration with the ILO Country Office for Argentina, the data is inspected jointly with an existing dataset produced by ILO. 

Several articles and presentations stem from this fruitful collaboration, with five initial research papers available for download in the AFD repository.

• The first article investigates whether working through a digital platform increases labour registration in high-informality occupations. It analyses how labour entry occurs in three selected platform-based occupations in Argentina. Considering the peculiarities of each occupation, it identifies which elements may contribute to a “formalization effect” and how this is experienced by workers. The main results of this working paper show that “formalization” is dependent on several factors: a platform’s business model, or the company’s interest and need to promote or encourage such process; the pre-existing occupational dynamics in terms of formalization; and general labour market conditions. In the context of an Argentine labour market harmed by a prolongued recession, most transitions to formality via the platform occur to previously unemployed workers who join them. However, given that in many cases unemployment is preceded by stable waged jobs, formalisation promoted by platforms (usually through the figure of the registered independent workers) is often perceived as a setback.
• The second article explores the challenges posed by regulation of platform labour, based on the case of Argentinean riders. The article analyses the treatment of three dimensions that tend to be at the centre of riders’ own concerns when it comes to the regulation of their occupation. First, the preservation of flexible schedules is found as a strong driver for riders participation into the platform. Second, the continuity of income self-regulation is a very relevant aspect for workers, even though this often implies overworking. Third aspect is an effective access to social protection, found as a major threat for riders’ job safety and well-being, and the absence of an occupational hazards insurance for riders stands out as a real barrier for workers.
• The third article explores how the digitalization of the work relation affects domestic workers in Argentina at the onset of the Covid-19 crisis. It analyses the use workers do of Zolvers, the only digital platform for domestic service in the country, and it compares what are the differences between jobs that have been taken on the platform and those outside. The working paper argues that the association between domestic service and the platform economy should be analysed in context: the uberisation of the activity is not a linear and uniform trend, but rather a contextual one. Compared to off-platform jobs in the sector, the article finds significantly higher levels of registration among Zolvers workers. This is particularly relevant since Zolvers’ jobs are characterized by few weekly hours, a kind of insertion that has proved most resistant to formalisation policies in the sector. The article delves into the reasons behind these phenomenon, which are tightly related to the platform business model. However, in the context of the Covid-19 crisis, the working paper also shows that registration, although having a protective effect, does not counteract the vulnerability implied by short-hours job positions, whose termination is substantially cheaper than full-time work.
• The fourth article investigates gender inequalities among platform riders and drivers. It identifies whether there exist gender gaps in terms of hours and income and what is their magnitude. Moreover, it analyses some possible determinants, including features specific to these occupations. The working paper finds that platforms are facilitating an increase in female participation due to three main factors: the impossibility of finding another job, the impersonal recruiting mechanisms and time flexibility offered by platforms. This trend still implies significant gender gaps. The analysis suggests that the differentiated economic performance of male and female riders and drivers is mainly associated to pre-existing gender inequalities that are reinforced by algorithmic bias in the platform. In particular, the scoring system of platforms tends to reward intensive workloads and participation in the more profitable shifts, such as nights and weekends. This implies important obstacles for women in terms of both their care responsibilities and their need to prevent street insecurity events.
• The last article delves deeper into female platform drivers’ labour market trajectories.  It inspects the profile of female drivers joining the platform in exploring which previous job experiences may have helped them to dare into a male-dominated occupation. Additionally, it reviews how, once in the platform, female drivers juggle between this activity and their socially assigned care responsibilities. The working paper shows that female drivers participation defies the idea that occupations involving driving or circulating in public spaces are inappropriate for women. However, this conquest has strong limits. The working paper finds that the daily efforts to reconcile paid work together with domestic care activities imply negative impacts in terms of earnings levels and health. The situation exposes an omnipresent unequal gender order, which still needs to be systematically questioned and confronted.

The Research Conversation webinar "Digital labour platforms: what challenges and opportunities for Argentina?" has been organized to discuss the results of the research project.

Contact: 

• Dr Francisca Pereyra, Adjunct Professor, Economics Department, Instituto de Ciencias, Universidad Nacional de General Sarmiento (UNGS)
• Dr Cecilia Poggi, AFD Research Officer

Since the publication of the Brundtland Report in 1987, which introduced the three pillars of sustainable development, to the adoption of the 2030 Agenda in 2015 with its 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), the development community has become increasingly concerned with rising inequalities—whether geographical (North/South), social (rich/poor), demographic (present/future generations), anthropological (men/women), or environmental.

Today, development actors are emphasizing the urgency and legitimacy of a new approach that explicitly links reducing inequalities—particularly gender inequalities (SDG 5)—with combating climate change (SDG 13). Since 2015, multilateral, regional, and bilateral development banks, United Nations agencies, civil society organizations, the media, and academia have reflected this commitment in their strategies, discourse, and actions, including funding, advocacy, and research.

The French law of August 4, 2021 (No. 2021-1031), unanimously adopted, establishes the fight against poverty and the preservation of global public goods—including health, climate, biodiversity, education, and gender equality—as key priorities of development policy. At AFD level, this commitment is reflected in its '100% Social Link and 100% Paris Agreement commitments.

It is therefore worth examining how different actors conceptualize and integrate the gender equality and climate agendas, each with its own dynamics and characteristics, to identify the main narratives shaping their approach.

The main objective was to identify and analyze the institutional discourses linking climate change and gender equality, as presented by various development aid actors. These include transnational organizations (such as the European Union), international bodies (UN agencies), multilateral and bilateral development donors and agencies, civil society organizations, and epistemic communities like the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC).

This research project, commissioned by the Observatoire français des conjonctures économiques (OFCE), aimed to:

• Map relevant institutions and themes,
• Analyze these discourses,
• Examine the cognitive and discursive frameworks and their evolution over the past decade,
• Provide insight into AFD’s positioning at the intersection of these issues.

The PRESAGE laboratory (OFCE/Sciences Po Paris) was tasked with analyzing the discourse of various actors across a broad range of documentary sources. A total of 800 documents in French, English, and Spanish, produced by 54 organizations, were filtered using 150 keywords and semantic fields related to climate change mitigation and gender equality to gain deeper insights into their framing.

To achieve this, the research team employed Critical Frame Analysis (CFA), the most advanced methodology for analyzing public policy discourse on gender equality and its dissemination. CFA combines cognitive, discursive, and sociological analysis to examine how public policies are framed, revealing different interpretations and logics surrounding gender equality, climate change mitigation, and their intersections.

The research led to the production of:

• A state-of-the-art review outlining the historical and discursive foundations of the interpretative frameworks used to link gender and climate issues.
• A mapping of key actors, including the reference texts they rely on.
• An analysis of the discourses connecting gender equality and climate change.

The project culminated in the publication of a research paper detailing the research partners, methodology, analyzed materials (including speeches, narratives, strategies, activity reports, and brochures), and recommendations for effectively integrating gender and climate considerations into development policies.

Additionally, the study contributed to academic literature through a second publication in the A question of development collection and an opinion piece in The Conversation France. The findings also provide valuable insights into AFD’s strategies and those of other stakeholders in advancing inclusive and equitable climate action.

Download the publications:

• “Quels cadres interprétatifs autour des enjeux genre et climat : enseignements d'une analyse bibliométrique” (Research Papers No. 255, Éditions Agence Française de Développement, July 2022)
• “How do international organizations address the articulation between gender and climate?” (A question of developpment No. 54, Éditions Agence Française de Développement, April 2022)

Read also: When gender and climate go hand in hand, new prospects for development

Eight key narratives emerged, reflecting different perspectives on the link between gender and climate:

• The vulnerability prism – framing gender and climate through the lens of vulnerability, particularly in emergency climate action.
• The smart economics approach – positioning gender inclusion as an economic opportunity to advance the climate agenda.
• Integration tools – developing mechanisms to embed gender equality into climate policies and strategies.
• Women and girls as agents of adaptation – emphasizing their empowerment as a key factor in climate resilience.
• Gender mainstreaming for transformative action – advocating for systemic gender integration to drive meaningful climate solutions.
• Intersectionality of inequality and discrimination – recognizing how multiple forms of discrimination shape the gender-climate nexus.
• The eco-feminist perspective – portraying women as stewards of nature and protectors of the environment.
• Decolonizing gender and climate action – challenging dominant frameworks and advocating for inclusive, context-specific approaches.

These frameworks have been structured based on their frequency of use, the categories of actors adopting them, and their evolution over time:

• Some are well-established, while others are still emerging.
• Their adoption varies both across and within different actor categories.
• They reflect differing levels of ambition for change, ranging from adaptive to transformative approaches.
• They are not fixed and can be combined or adapted over time.

Each narrative highlights distinct—sometimes even divergent—political, economic, and social priorities. They all have their strengths and limitations.

This work aims to inform AFD’s strategic reflections and, more broadly, contribute to the ongoing discussions among key development actors on how to integrate these two critical themes more effectively.

Contacts:

• Hélène Périvier, economist and director of the Programme de recherche et d'enseignement des savoirs sur le genre (PRESAGE) of the OFCE-Sciences Po
• Maxime Forest, political scientist, research associate at the OFCE and lecturer at Sciences Po
• Serge Rabier, research officer at AFD